Diyarbakır City Walls, Gates & Towers

Like most of the other monuments in the old city, the city walls of Diyarbakır (Dış Kale) are constructed from local volcanic basalt. This dark-colored stone was used to such an extent throughout the old town of Diyarbakır (Âmid) that until the end of the 16^th century, the city was sometimes referred to as “Kara [Black] Âmid.”

The fortification system originally consisted of an inner and an outer wall, the latter surrounded by a moat of varying widths. The Persian writer Nasir-i Khusraw (11^th century) provides a description of the outer wall along with the associated city gates;1 only scant remains of this wall are to be found today, to the northeast of the citadel. It has been suggested that the outer walls were destroyed by the Ayyubid ruler al-Malik al-Kamil (Melik Kâmil) following his capture of the city in 1232 AD.2

The inner wall is relatively well preserved. It is 10–12 m high and 3–5 m thick; it is interspersed with 82 bastions, four main portals, and a number of ancillary gates. The four principal portals are situated roughly on the east-west and north-south axes, corresponding to the cardo and decumanus maximus of the Roman-era city. These are:

1. To the north, Dağ Kapı (former names include 'Harput,' 'Bab-ı Cebel,' 'Armenian,' and 'Kurtuluş'; see the panorama): This gate is located between two round bastions; the portal is framed by arcuated pilasters. The surfaces around the gate and on the bastions flanking it bear numerous inscriptions, including three in Greek and one in Latin (see e.g. the Greek inscription on the eastern bastion). In addition, there are a number of reliefs depicting animals. Noteworthy examples include the lions flanking the niche on the western bastion and the confronted felines and birds on the eastern bastion.
2. To the west, Urfa Kapı (former names include 'Rum' and 'Aleppo'; see the panorama): Flanked by two imposing towers 20 m in height, this gate features three portals: a large arched entrance at the center and smaller rectangular doorways to the north and south. It was reconstructed in 1183–84 by the Artuqid Muhammad, as indicated by the inscription above the northern portal. Below the inscription, there is a striking relief depicting an eagle standing on top of the horns of an ox. This is the only surviving example of this composition in Anatolia, symbolizing the victory of the (positive) qualities represented by the eagle over those represented by the ox.3 Also of note is the door of the northern portal, which is made entirely of iron bars (see the panorama).
3. To the south, Mardin Kapı (formerly named 'Tell'; see the panorama): Of the three original entrances of the Mardin Kapı gate, only the eastern one exists today. Above the gate and on the eastern bastion appear inscriptions of the Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir, dated to 909–10. As was the case at Dağ Kapı, there are animal reliefs on the walls to the east and west of the gate.
4. To the east, Yeni Kapı (former names include 'Dicle' and 'Şatt'; see the panorama): Yeni Kapı provided access to the Tigris Valley through a ramp. Due to the natural protection provided by the valley, the intervals of the towers were kept longer in this part of the fortification system.

The Keçi Tower (49^th bastion), located near the Mardin Kapi, is perhaps the most conspicuous of the wall's 82 bastions. Also imposing are the Ulu (Evli) Beden Tower (29^th bastion; see the exterior panorama and interior panorama) and Yedi Kardeş Tower (37^th bastion; see the exterior panorama and interior panorama). They are located to the southwest, between Urfa and Mardin Gates, and were commissioned by the Artuqid al-Malik al-Salih Nasreddin Mahmud (r. 1200/1–1222/23 AD). These circular bastions stand out not only for their size (over 25 m in diameter) but also for the decoration of their facades, similarly arranged. Both towers are dominated by the monumental inscriptions that encircle them, interrupted by symmetrically designed figural relief compositions.

On the Ulu Beden Tower, a double-headed eagle, flanked by two winged sphinxes carved in high relief, is centrally placed under a slit window and a cornice with muqarnas work. Two felines are rendered below the inscription but aligned with the sphinxes above. Winged lions with tails terminating in dragon heads appear at each end of the long inscription. All of these figures are inserted into individually delineated niches. The composition on the Yedi Kardeş Tower is similar. Here a double-headed eagle is flanked by two facing winged lions with their heads rendered en face. The tail of the western lion terminates in a dragon head.

Also to be noted are the less massive but equally interesting two Seljukid towers (28^th and 38^th bastions: “Selçuklu Burcu” and “Melikşah Burcu,” respectively), both commissioned by Malik Shah (r. 1072–1092 AD). Their decorative program combines inscriptions and figurative elements, which consist of single or double-headed eagles, facing pairs of kneeling bulls, animal combats involving birds, and, interestingly, a depiction of a nude seated woman. These compositions have been interpreted as part of an elaborate iconographic program designed to project the victorious power of Malik Shah as bringer of peace to Diyarbakır.4

The inner citadel (İç Kale) is located to the northeast end of the walled city and overlooks the Tigris River. In the northwestern part of this area rises a mound called Virantepe;5 the excavation of this mound revealed the remains of a highly decorated royal palace, again attributable to al-Malik al-Salih Nasreddin Mahmud. The palace has yielded remarkable examples of polychrome glazed tiles and polychrome mosaics. The other main features of the inner citadel are the monumental western gate (Saray Kapı), with its two imposing towers, and the southern gate—apparently used for ceremonial rather than defensive purposes—consisting of a large pointed arch.

• 1. See Thackston 2011, 10.
• 2. Beysanoğlu 1987, 140.
• 3. Öney 1992, 51. Also note that Gierlichs (2016, 55–56) interprets the relief here as a further instance of the rulers' use of imagery on the walls as 'political propaganda,' an approach originating with the reliefs of Malik Shah's towers created during the previous century (see below); in this case, the image would symbolize the ascension of the Ayyubids and Artuqids in Diyarbakır.
• 4. Gierlichs 2016.
• 5. The mound is also called Virankale, while the rock formation itself is referred to in the sources as Fıs (or Fis) Kayası.